Allyson's Mcro blog

Antibiotics are only effective against bacteria, not viruses. Using antibiotics against your viral infection will not cure your infection, instead some bacteria in your body will use it to become antibiotic resistant to that antibiotic you misused.

One of the ways people misuse antibiotics is taking antibiotics that were prescribed to someone else. A study found that 25% of people had used antibiotics without a prescription. Another way people misuse antibiotics is by saving an antibiotic they didn’t finish/use and using it later for another infection. The same study found that 50% of people have done this.

Antibiotic over-prescription for cold

There are over 200 viruses that can cause a cold. When most people get a sore throat and headache and runny nose they automatically run to the doctor for antibiotics. Antibiotics will not help you in any way if you have a cold (because it only works against viruses, and the cold is a virus), but it could cause harm. Taking antibiotics for viruses could lead to antibiotic resistant bacteria that can be lethal. So, don’t beg your doctor for antibiotics, and always make sure to accurately describe your signs/symptoms to your healthcare provider.

The danger of misuse

As mentioned above, misusing antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistant bacteria (also known as superbugs). Once these bacteria are antibiotic resistant, there is no stopping them. Antibiotic bacteria can cause many problems because as of now we have no medication that can treat them. Although some antibiotic resistant bacteria are not lethal, some are very lethal. So, the only thing we can do now is try to prevent the development of more antibiotic resistant bacteria and spread awareness of antibiotic misuse (especially for viruses).

What, who, how?

Superbugs are bacteria that have become resistant to modern day antibiotics/drugs. Superbugs are very dangerous because they are resistant to all of our antibiotics therefore, we have no medication that can kill them. According to the World Health Organization, superbugs could cause 10 million deaths a year by 2050 if nothing is done. Superbugs are created when we misuse antibiotics. When you don’t finish your full prescription of antibiotics, or when you take antibiotics for the wrong type of infection you’re allowing bacteria to become resistant to that antibiotic. Some examples of bacteria that are becoming superbugs include: E.coli, Staphylococcus, Enterobacteriaceae, and C. diff.

Spreading

Superbugs are spread just like any other type of bacteria. Depending on the bacteria, it can be spread in a number of different ways. These infections can be spread through direct contact, indirect contact, fomites, droplets, etc. One of the best things you can do to prevent the spread of superbugs is hand washing/personal hygiene. A study done by the University of Michigan showed that 14% of 399 patients in a hospital had superbugs on their hands or nostrils; 33% of objects those patients normally touched also had superbugs on them.

More antibiotics?

Scientists have created 100’s of antibiotics over the past several years. They have come to a time in today’s society where they are struggling to find new things to create antibiotics with. They have started looking in viruses, the deep ocean, and even other planets for new antibiotic ingredients. The problem is, it takes about 10 years to make a new antibiotic, whereas it takes some bacteria 20 minutes to reproduce and only a few years to undergo evolutionary modifications. The process of making antibiotics is just not able to keep up with the development of new mutations in bacteria. Mass General’s Shenoy says that “Research shows that whenever a new antibiotic comes into use, we start to see the first resistant microbes emerge about a year later.” It also takes billions of dollars to create a new antibiotic.

You should be very concerned

You should be very concerned about these superbugs. I know I am! Honestly, superbugs are very scary to me! These bacteria are resistant to almost every medication we have available, so if we contract this infection, there is nothing any doctor can do about it. Some of these superbugs aren’t lethal but the ones that are are going to take over and kill the masses because we have nothing to stop them. Right now we can’t stop the ones that are already created but we can try to stop the emergence of more. We need to spread awareness of superbugs (quickly) and make sure that people are very careful when it comes to antibiotics and their misuse. The future of medicine is very promising so hopefully in the future scientists will be able to create more antibiotics against these superbugs.

As medicine is becoming more advanced, vaccines all over the world are being created and improved. Vaccines are very important because they help keep the population safe from potentially deadly infections. As new diseases arise, and old diseases become more advanced, new vaccines are being made.

What is Trump doing?

Just a couple days ago, On September 19, Trump signed an executive order to further develop the Flu vaccine. Trump wants the Department of Health and Human Services, and the Department of Defense to work together in creating a universal vaccine which would replace the seasonal vaccines we get now. This order will also order research to be done on quicker ways to make the vaccine as well as ways to make it more effective.

The Flu vaccines takes a while to make because it is made primarily from chicken eggs which is a process that takes about 6 months. The Flu vaccine is normally only about 45% effective because the Flu vaccine changes frequently, so every year scientists have to get together and guess what strain of the Flu will be most prevalent that year. Sometimes there are right, and sometimes they’re not (it also doesn’t help that they have to guess far in advance since it takes a long time to create the vaccine and get it out to the public).

I think the research this order will start will be extremely helpful to our knowledge of the Flu and the Flu vaccine. However, I have some doubts about what this research can accomplish. Because the Flu vaccine changes frequently, I don’t think a universal vaccine is possible. The Flu can shift (genetically) in so many different ways that I don’t think we can come up with a vaccine that will be protective against every possible shift that could occur. But, I hope that I am proven wrong and that one day there is a universal Flu shot; you never know nowadays with constantly improving medicine.

The same vaccine for animals and humans?

Rift Valley Fever is a mosquito borne disease that can infect both humans and animals. This disease is very deadly in Africa right now. According to the World Economic Forum, ” the disease kills more than 90% of young animals and causes nearly 100% of pregnant animals to abort their foetuses”. This is a big loss especially for a place like Kenya where agriculture is one of their main sources of income. When this disease affects humans it causes a less severe fever, but can in rare occasions lead to encephalitis, blindness, and death.

There is a current vaccine for animals that protects against Rift Valley Fever, but there is not one for humans or pregnant animals. The project to create a vaccine that will help both animals and humans is still underway. In one of the trials the vaccine proved 100% effective for animals and they are hopeful that this adenovirus will also be effective in the human trial.

It is amazing to read about how far medicine is coming. Making a vaccine like this to protect animals and humans (with the same vaccine) has never been done before, but it doesn’t mean that it can’t be done! I think it would be very hard to create, but not impossible.

Ever since a poorly executed research article was published saying that vaccinations cause autism, people have started to become anti-vaxers. Even though this conclusion has since been proven to not be true, people still continue to not get vaccinated. Companies, like Facebook, have started taking a stand against these anti-vaccination posts.

What is Facebook doing?

To help this anti-vaccination movement, Facebook declared in March that they would try to limit the spread of misinformation about vaccines. Facebook has since removed anti-vaccination groups from peoples recommendations, and has removed anti-vaccination ads. Although Facebook cannot delete people’s anti-vaccination posts, they are making these types of posts harder to search on Facebook.

Facebook and other companies started limiting anti-vaccination content because they were getting a lot of pressure from legislators, and organizations. The American Medical Association wrote a letter addressing all social media companies telling them that they should start monitoring anti-vaccination posts. The American Medical Association wrote: “With public health on the line and with social media serving as a leading source of information for the American people, we urge you to do your part to ensure that users have access to scientifically valid information on vaccinations, so they can make informed decisions about their families’ health”.

I think what Facebook is doing is helping overall. In today’s society, people will believe anything they see on the internet, so if Facebook can block any misinformation about vaccinations it will be a big help. Billions of people are on Facebook, and I believe that what Facebook is doing it great, but if they could go one step further and advertise valid healthcare websites with truthful information about vaccines, I think the anti-vaccination movement would start to dwindle down.

The governments role

As the anti-vaccination movement continues, the government is trying to take over more of a role in stopping anti-vaxers. But, some groups are saying that the government shouldn’t have a role at all.

In 2015, California became the first state to get rid of exemption clauses from school vaccination laws. This has led to the growing of California’s vaccination rate. But, those families that still don’t want to vaccinate their children have started moving to private and charter schools to avoid the vaccination laws.

Another example of a government role in this movement occurred in New York. In April, New York had a bad measles outbreak and the mayor responded by ordering mandatory vaccinations for the community that started the outbreak. The Washington Post considered this the strongest state response to a public health crisis in decades.

There have also been multiple wins and loses (of law suits) for the anti-vaccination community this year. In march, multiple parents lost in a lawsuit to try and get their unvaccinated children readmitted to school. Then, in the same community in April a judge got rid of a ban that was not letting unvaccinated children into public places.

I believe that in the future, and as this issue gets worse, the government will clearly state their role, and make new laws regarding their decision. In my opinion, I believe the government should make laws regarding the mandatory vaccination of children because vaccinations don’t just help the child, they also help those around the child that might not be able to get vaccinated for health reasons. The government cannot refute the fact that unvaccinated children are a threat to public health, so I think that if the government steps in, it could be a huge step to ending the anti-vaccination movement.

Your microbiome is the collection of microbes (bacteria, fungi, etc.) that live on/inside your body. There are many pros and cons to these microbes and they depend on each person because everyone’s microbiome is unique to them.

The microbiome’s role in your health

Your microbiome plays many roles in your health, but, because the microbiome was discovered so recently, we still haven’t figured out all of its functions. Some of the functions we are aware of so far include digesting food, producing vitamins, and very importantly, preventing infections.

The mircobes in your intestines fight against harmful bacteria to make sure that the harmful bacteria doesn’t take over. One of the ways your microbes do this is by competing with the harmful bacteria for food and space. Therefore, your microbiome plays a crucial role in preventing you from getting sick.

For example, the American Association for the Advancement of Science did a study on how the microbiome protected against a viral infection. In this study, the team found that your gut microbiota play a crucial role in signaling for the immune system when it detects a virus. The immune system then comes and tries to destroy the virus. It is astonishing to me that these tiny microbes can prevent us from getting a life-threatening infection.

The microbiome’s role in disease

Your microbiome has also been found to have a role in causing disease. Studies show that the microbiome of people with certain diseases appear to be different then the microbiome of people without disease.

The American Society of Microbiology did a study to see if people with Alzheimer’s Disease had different microbiota than those without Alzheimer’s Disease. The study found that people with Alzheimer’s did in fact have different microbiota than those without the disease. A more in depth test showed that the microbiota of those with Alzheimer’s seemed to have a higher amount (than those without the disease) of a certain bacteria that causes inflammation.

This information is worrying because it shows that in some cases we can’t prevent certain diseases. No matter how healthy we try to be, it appears that some diseases will happen anyway, without us having any control, just because of how our microbiome developed.

As new information comes out about the microbiome in the future I hope to learn more about why my body gets certain diseases and doesn’t get others, how my body keeps me safe from infection, and how my microbiota can affect my whole body

Cancer is a disease that makes your cells divide and multiply uncontrollably. This uncontrolled multiplication can lead to visible tumors. Cancer is very dangerous because there is no definite cure. There are therapies (radiation, chemotherapy) that can delay cell multiplication, or even cure some patients, but there is no one definite cure for cancer.

Cancer vaccine? How?

Studies in 2005 showed that T cells (of the immune system) should be able to penetrate and kill cancer cells. T cells recognize the unknown antigen on the surface of cancer cells. But, they don’t effectively call lymphocytes to the site to kill the cells; this is where they are trying to make vaccines that can stimulate these cancer killing cells more efficiently (so cool!!).

There was a drug developed over a decade ago that stimulates the immune system, therefore, producing more T cells to fight off the cancer cells. This drug was able to fight about 25% of cancers.

Another approach…

Scientists from Northwestern University have a different approach. Each of our cells in our body has its own “kill code” to tell the cell when to commit cell death. These scientist think they have found out how to “hack” into cancer cells genome and get their “kill code” (also so cool!!). They found that microRNA’s activate cancer cells to initiate natural cell death. This is something that chemotherapy tries to do, but these scientists are trying to come up with a better, and safer approach. It’s crazy to think scientists could “hack” into something so molecular.

The Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC)

The IRIC developed a cancer vaccine and tested it out on mice. By injecting mice with cancer cells this team was able to identify some of the antigens and DNA that code for cancer. The team then developed a leukemia vaccine based on these identified antigens. The vaccine was then administered to the mice. A member of the team said “Each antigen we tested eliminated 10 to 100 per cent of the leukemia,”  and “some of the antigens protected the mouse for its entire life despite the reinjection of new leukemia cells”. These same antigens were also seen in human leukemia cells. Human clinical trials have not started yet, but this vaccine seems to be very promising.

It’s hard to imagine a world without cancer, but it would be so amazing to be able to eradicate such a deadly disease! Being someone who’s family has been affected by cancer, a cancer vaccine would change the lives of not just patients, but so many patients families as well.

Malaria is transferred to humans by diseased female mosquito’s that transmit parasites. Malaria infects the red blood cells. This disease primarily affects those in Africa, and Asia. This can be a very dangerous disease if left untreated. According to the CDC, “In 2016, 216 million cases of malaria occurred worldwide, and 445,000 people died”

Signs/Symptoms

A lot of the signs/symptoms of malaria are flu-like. These include, fever, chills, headache, etc. Signs and symptoms come in cycles which alternate with cycles of feeling healthy. It is very important to recognize these signs and symptoms quickly so that it doesn’t progress drastically, leading to death. Because this disease infects the red blood cells it leads to blood clotting, and enlargement of the spleen.

Prevention

According to WHO, the main prevention is vector control which includes, mosquito nets, and indoor residual spray. There is also an anti-malaria medication that is used to prevent malaria. Travelers are the main people who use this type of prevention, for when they travel to a foreign country that has malaria infected mosquito. When I went to Indonesia in 2016 on a mission trip I had to take anti-malaria pills for multiple days before I left for the trip, while I was there, and after I got back. Resistance to anti-malaria drugs is starting to increase, which could be very bad for frequent travelers. This resistance is scary because if when I went to Indonesia, malaria was resistant to my medication, and I got bitten by an infected mosquito and started getting symptoms, I might not go to the doctor because I would think I was protected by the medications, which could then lead to serious illness or even death.

Treatment

The best treatment for Malaria is artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT), which is a combination of a couple drugs. However, malaria is now starting to become resistant to this medication as well. This is also very serious because there are not a lot of available treatment for malaria, and if it is not treated, it can lead to death.

Is there hope for a vaccine?

Currently, there is no malaria vaccine that is available to the public. Because malaria has a unique life-cycle, and the parasites are genetically unique, it has been hard to create a vaccine. GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals’ RTS,S is a the first malaria vaccine that has passed phase 3 clinical testing, but it is not on the market yet. This trial is making massive improvements every year, so, I hope that a vaccine becomes available, especially to protect those in Africa, and Asia.

Thimerosal is an ingredient in some vaccines that prevent germs from growing in them. If germs like bacteria or fungus grow in vaccines, it can cause serious sickness in the person who received the vaccine.

Is Thimerosal bad for you?

NO

You may have heard rumors in the past that Thimerosal is unsafe for humans. People think this because it contains Mercury, but not the harmful kind of Mercury. There are 2 different types of mercury, for example, the mercury in some fish can cause harm to humans, bu the mercury in Thimerosal is very unlikely to cause harm. Thimerosal was approved in vaccines in the 1930’s. In July 1999 multiple organizations agreed to reduce or eliminate Thimerosal in vaccines as a prevention measure; Thimerosal was completely removed from childhood vaccines in 2001.

Misconceptions

All of the controversy’s regarding the safeness of this ingredient have been been diminished with research. There has been controversy that this ingredient causes autism but, there is no research that shows a connection between autism and Thimerosal. Thimerosal does not have any serious side effects. But, it can cause redness and swelling at the site of the injection which can happen when getting any vaccine.

Safety

Because of all of the controversies surrounding this vaccination ingredient, there have been at least 8 safety panels conducted by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) deeming Thimerosal safe.

In the 2000s, thousandths of court cases were filed against the vaccine court stating that these people thought the MMR vaccine, and vaccines including Thimerosal, had caused autism. The decision of this court case what that there is no link between Thimerosal containing vaccines and autism.

I don’t understand why, after so much evidence, that people still believe that this ingredient causes harm. It is the governments job to test vaccinations and tell the public if they are safe to use or now. Many government organizations have told the public that vaccinations cause more good than harm, and that they do not causes autism. Anyone who thinks against this is just plain ignorant. I would just like to see where these anti-vaxers are getting their research from.

Shingles overview

Shingles is caused by a reactivated of Chickenpox in people who have had Chickenpox in the past. Shingles causes painful rashes and blisters on the skin. Shingles also causes nerve pain that can last for months after a reactivation occurs. Shingles normally occurs in people over the age of 50.

Shingrix

A new vaccine for Shingles has been created, and it is called “Shingrix“. Shingrix was approved in October 2017. This vaccine is being produced by the company GlaxoSmithKline. Because a Shingles vaccine was produced in 2006, this new vaccine is in direct competition with the old vaccine. Shingrix is said to be 90% effective, compared to the old vaccine which was about 50% effective. Shingrix is given in 2 shots with the second one being 2-6 months after the first one is administered. 2 shots of Shingrix together cost about $300. This is expensive but not in comparison to other vaccines available today. These vaccines are considered inactivated recombinant vaccines (RZV) that are given as injections relatively deep into the muscle (intramuscular).

Problems with Shingrix

In June, the CDC posted a statement saying that there had been a number of serious injuries associated with this vaccine. Within the first 4 months of being on the shelves, the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) received 155 reports linked to this new vaccine. A lot of these errors were associated with the people giving the vaccine. Many vaccine administers were confusing the 2 vaccines which are significantly different. Administration errors of this vaccine also include giving it subcutaneously which can cause an injection site reaction. This vaccines side effects are also reported to be more severe than the old vaccine. These symptoms include rash, joint pain, flu- like symptoms, headaches, etc.

In my opinion, most of the errors with this vaccine could be avoided by educating healthcare professionals on this vaccine. Patients expect their healthcare provider to know how to administer their vaccine correctly. So, these errors have nothing to do with the vaccine itself, but with the people administering the vaccine.

What type of immune response is activated from this vaccine?

What occurs in our body after being given this vaccine?

I think a cell-mediated immune response including T cytotoxic cells would occur after giving the Shingrix vaccine. Shingles is a virus, and viruses live inside a host cell. A cell mediated response causes body cells to be killed when taken over by viruses, or parasites. I think T cytotoxic (killer) cells would be activated to kill all the cells with the Shingles virus (from the vaccine) inside. This process would require MHC- 1 because these are endogenous (the virus is inside the cell).

Poliomyelitis is a viral illness that is spread through feces and other bodily secretions. Polio often causes permanent paralysis. Polio can be carried in the environment, even when not in a human host. Polio is difficult to contain because several individuals could be infected before they start showing signs of paralysis. There are two different vaccinations for Polio, an injected, and an oral.

Eradication

There was an eradication target of the year 2000, but, it was missed. The next target year was 2018, which was also missed. These missed target are caused by hard to reach areas, mostly in the middle East. In 2014, polio was considered a “global public health emergency of international concern”.

There are 3 viral strains of polio. Type 2 has been eradicated, but types 1 and 3 have not.

A lot is happening to try and eradicate polio. For example, South Africa tests every child that experiences neurological weakness for polio. Globally, there were 350,000 cases of polio in 1988, but in 2017 there were only 21 cases. Struggles of eradication include resources, finances, and reaching out to those small cities.

The chairs on the board of Polio Global Eradication Initiative released a recent statement saying that Polio will be eradicated by 2023.

Inactivated Polio Vaccine vs. Oral Polio Vaccine

The Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV) is an injected form of the vaccine (the vaccine you got if you live in the U.S.). This vaccination is produced from the wild-type form of Polio. This injection contains a dead virus which causes antibodies to form in your blood. IPV is normally given in more rich countries (because it is more expensive), it is also favored in some countries because it is a tad bit safer than OPV.

The Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) contains a weakened version of the live virus. OPV is administered through drops in the mouth. This vaccination contains a mixture of the 3 types of Polio. This ingestion then causes a local immune response in the intestines. OPV provides better herd immunity but, there is a tiny risk that OPV can cause Polio (from the book). OPV is used in poorer countries because it is a lot lower cost than IPV, and easier to administer.